However computers were not even in existence for some of the most important events in the space race. Space computers can autonomously launch, control, and land spacecraft. If not, either the main engines or other auxiliary engines are used to change the crafts trajectory. By modern-day standards that specification may look almost embarrassingly underpowered, but make no mistake it was considerably more powerful than the 'pocket calculator' comparison would imply. The Gemini rocket's control system was to be used as a test-bed for the Moon landings, so it had to do more than merely crunch numbers: it had to be error-proof, efficient and, above all else, small. The computer mouse dates back to the 1960s. In the realm of space exploration, the Apollo missions to the Moon generated predictions that also failed to come to pass: permanent outposts on the Moon, tourist hotels in Earth orbit, manned missions to Mars. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000. The programcorrectlynoted that the Internet descended from the ARPANET, a computer network designed for, and sponsored by the US military. Two different sets of programming were used, one for the command module and one for the lunar module. During these early days, the Launch Operations Directorate in Florida, under the leadership of Dr. Kurt H. Debus, was an arm of the Marshall Space Flight . The configuration of most rockets, with their engines at the bottom and the fuel tanks and payload above, is unstable. NASA knew that the Apollo missions would require onboard systems capable of handling every aspect of the mission and that meant a guidance system of unprecedented ingenuity. The early mechanical or pneumatic devices were later replaced by electronic systems, using vacuum tubes. Many spacecraft adopt it, too, but in more nuanced ways, especially if the craft is not carrying a human crew. Hence the thesis of that television program: that the little-noticed computer network from ARPA overwhelms the more visible aeronautics and space achievements of NASA. The "handshake in space" represented the improving relationship between the Soviets and the U.S. Eberhart, the author of this article, had his article published in 1965, right in the middle of the space race. The Gemini Program's guidance computer weighed about 59 pounds with core memory for 4,096 words and a 7.1 Khz clock. The notion of digital photography was conceptualized by engineer Eugene Lally at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory at the peak of the space race. Washington, DC: NASA, 2000. In The Media By 1963, demand created by the Apollo program had driven the price down to about $25. Paradoxically, you have to aim lower than the other craft by a certain degree to catch it up, and that's difficult to do by hand and with limited fuel. It ran at 1 Mhz, used 2.5 amps of power and had 36 KB of memory. Five Technologies We Gained From The Space Race, Click here to discover K2s Emerging Technologies for Accountants, Including Blockchain and Cryptocurrency. With both lives and huge amounts of money on the line, NASA has had to advance not only computer hardware but also the techniques and technologies required for working on the cutting edge. MIT had previously designed the guidance system for the Polaris Missiles so they were one of the few companies with the necessary experience. The fifth computer is there in case of a software errorit is programmed by a different group of people, so there is little chance of all five computers having a common bug in their software (Tomayko 1987, 85133). While this may only be the same size and weight of a modern tower PC, comparable computers at the time took up whole rooms and required a staff of operators to keep them going. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1999. Nicknamed SPOC . The invention of the electronic digital computer, which occurred in several places between about 1940 and 1950, was often connected to the solution of problems in the sciences of astronomy and aerodynamics, or in support of the technologies of aircraft design and production, air traffic control, anti-aircraft weapons, and later guided missile development. In the fifty years since their founding, one can list a remarkable number of achievements by each, but chief among those achievements are two. Part 3. A future expedition's list of objectives is devised along with the necessary technical features of a projected computer; it is all done with modern and time-tested technologies in mind. One of these will be the first private company to land astronauts on the moon by 2024. It was given the whimsical title Nerds 2.0.1: A Brief History of the Internet (Segaller 1998). One of the human computers' main tasks was computing the planned trajectories, or paths, for a spacecraft based on the vehicle weight, lift capacity of the rocket, and the orbital dynamics of the planets. As a technology, GPS is almost taken for granted in todays world, enabling us to drive for one location to another, track the distance we jog, and improve the efficiency of delivering packages. One of the ironies of history is that advances in space exploration have had an effect on aircraft design as well. The computer was at the side of these modern . That lawreally an empirical observationhas driven the computer industry ever since, and with it the symbiotic relationship with aerospace. They were bigger and slower. It could handle ascent, orbital flight, rendezvous and reentry and had a keyboard and display unit. Before inventing the mouse, Engelbart worked at the NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California, and later for a commercial computer networking company owned by the aerospace company McDonnell-Douglas. By the time NASA was preparing to send John Glenn to space for the historic Mercury-Atlas 6 mission computers were used to calculate launch conditions. For example, computer is a good device to achieve data storage of businesses and thus can help to decrease the huge amount of paper which are required for ordinary working issues. And was the network developed by NASAs companion agency, ARPA, the true defining technology of the modern age? Although the details of these systems are classified, we can say that many US military systems tend to be controlled from ground facilities located near Colorado Springs, Colorado; human spaceflight from Houston, Texas; and commercial systems from various other places in the country. The arrival of the first man on the moon on July 20, 1969 ended the space race, shifting the final balance in favor of the United States.But the truth is that most of the previous landmarks had first been reached by the Soviet Union, which led the way until the final triumph of its rival.We review here the main achievements of the Soviet space program before the historic Apollo 11 mission. By the 1960s, space operations were tightly bound to the ground. Neither question admits of an easy answer. Receive the OpenMind newsletter with all the latest contents published on our website, l'Universit Paris Diderot, Paris, France, Smithsonians National Air and Space Museum (NASM), Washington, USA. In the late 1960s, many influential computer scientists predicted that computers would attain Artificial Intelligence (AI), and become our personal servants, perhaps even companions (McCorduck 1979). The Earth is now encircled by communications and weather satellites that are integrated into our daily lives. This is the argument made by inventor Ray Kurzweil, who believes such a transfer of consciousness is inevitable (Kurzweil 1999). The Civil Rights Act had just passed and the slide rule was giving way to computers when Frances "Poppy" Northcutt arrived at NASA's Houston campus in 1965, eager to join the space race. Segaller, Stephen. About Us Perhaps most remarkably, the AGC contained just 36kB of memory holding programs critical to the mission, and was composed of ferrite cores woven by hand into a structure resembling macram. The pilots would obtain information about their location, and the location of any potentially interfering traffic, using onboard computers that process data from the constellation of GPS or other navigation satellites, plus other satellites and a few select ground stations. For example, firing a rocket motor to get closer to another spacecraft actually puts your own ship into a higher orbit. ESA uses a lot of SPARC32 chips, in the form of the (GPL'd) LEON, which was designed to be able to be created in rad-hardened versions by anyone, cheaply. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Aircraft do not require, as the Lunar Module did, such fly-by-wire controls, but by using a computer, the A-320 had better comfort and better fuel economy than competing aircraft from American suppliers Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas. Why? . Spacecraft face a different environment, and their control needs are different. The Space Race started with the USSR launching. Washington, DC: NASA, 2007. The main reason the space computer is "outdated" is the vast amount of time that is spent on creating one. In the Apollo computer 5,600 integrated circuits formed the CPU. Once the rocket motors have shut down, it is free to orient itself in any direction and will fly the same no matter how it is pointed. Throughout the 1960s, the two countries were involved in the "Cold War", a conflict where they didn't go into battle but fought each other indirectly through spying, backing opposite sides in other countries . During the initial phase of powered flight, which may last only a few minutes or less, the critical issue is to align the thrust vector of the rocket against the launch vehicles center of gravity. This type of redundancy has become the norm in aircraft design. Mackenzie, Donald. Both were identical in hardware, but had different software weaved into their memories. From that beginning, manned spacecraft gradually acquired more onboard control and autonomy, but no crewed spacecraft to this day is ever allowed to operate without inputs from mission controllers on Earth. The Real-Time Computer Complex (RTCC) in Houston, Texas, was an IBM computing and data processing system at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Centernow called the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Centerthat collected, processed and sent to Mission Control information to direct every phase of an Apollo mission. It was christened Moores Law, by Gordon Moore, a colleague of Robert Noyces at Fairchild, who was responsible for laying much of the material foundation for the chips advances (Moore 1965). We make every effort to maintain a high level of integrity, family values, and friendship among all involved. In the mid-1990s, the Internet moved rapidly from a network known only to computer scientists or other specialists, to something that was used by ordinary citizens across the industrialized world. We compiled 30 common items that were invented for use in the race for space. The term control also encompasses operational aspects of a space mission, such as turning on a camera, activating an instrument, preparing a vehicle for capture by another planet, etc. The Cold War was a war between the United State and the Soviet . Moore, Gordon. Boeing has likewise experienced problems integrating assemblies from different places for its new jet, the 787 Dreamliner. Uses by the US team for commanding to the vehicle is do. December 1968 saw the launch of Apollo 8, the first manned space mission to orbit the moon, from NASA's massive launch facility on Merritt Island, near Cape Canaveral, Florida. Project Whirlwind at MIT successfully tracked and directed an Air Force plane to intercept another aircraft over Cape Cod in April 1951. It was no coincidence that NASA choose as the manager of this program none other than Neil Armstrong, the first person to walk on the Moon in 1969, and thus one of the first whose life depended intimately on the correct operation of a digital computer (Tomayko 2000). For gamers, perhaps no other outcome of the Space Race is as important as the joystick. Some of that money was wasted, but US military support, mainly although not exclusively to support aerospace, was a powerful driver of the technology. One facet of history that is forgotten when writing about the Internet is that the aerospace community was among the worlds pioneers in computer networking, but to different ends. Car crash technology. The Soviet Unions successful launch of two Sputnik satellites in the fall of 1957 came as a shock to many Americans. And NASA, responding to a challenge by President John F. Kennedy in 1961, successfully landed a dozen astronauts on the Moon and retuned them safely to Earth between 1969 and 1972. One obvious issue that arose in the transfer of fly-by-wire to commercial aircraft from Project Apollo was the issue of reliability, already mentioned. Current page: However, it was actually a global scientific research programme that both sides used to signal their intention of launching into space. It consumed 55 watts of power and weighed 70 pounds with a keyboard and a display unit as well. Want to learn about todays emerging technologies? Between the mid-1950s to 1975, the United States and the Soviet Union strived to outdo each other in rocket technology and space exploration. To create the Gemini computer system, IBM engineers soldered together hundreds of individual transistors, resistors and capacitors. Providing the systems to support people while in orbit adds significant additional costs to a space mission, and ensuring that the launch, flight, and reentry are . Space telescopes operating in the visible and other wavelengths have ushered in a new era of science that is as exciting as any in history (Dick and Launius 2007). The human brain was simply faster at the time and in many cases were women, most recently brought to life in the recent film Hidden Figures. The Internets ability to link disparate computer systems by a set of common protocols likewise sets it apart from aerospace networks, which often are unable to communicate with one another. Another direct influence of the Air Force and NASA on computing was the development of Computer Aided Design (CAD). It was not simply a matter of designing a network that could survive a nuclear attack, as many popular histories assert; it was also a need to have a communications system that cold be as flexible and robust in keeping with the new military environment of aerospace after World War II (Abbate 1999). Given the laws of physics as we currently know them, it is difficult to envision human travel beyond the orbit of Mars with even the most optimistic extrapolations of current chemical rocket propulsion. Sign up to get breaking news, reviews, opinion, analysis and more, plus the hottest tech deals! In her book Hidden Figures, Margot Lee Shetterly tells the story of the human computers, a group of black female mathematicians who at the peak of the space race and the civil rights movement worked behind the scenes at NASA. Pleiades is a SUSE Linux Enterprise Server distribution that uses the same open star cluster as the name suggests. A solid-state analog device that required no batteries. When a spacecraft is launched, it begins sending telemetry signals back to Earth. None of these have happened yet, but advances in space technology have been remarkable. To help reduce power consumption a standby mode was programmed to use between 5 and 10 watts. At this point it is worthwhile to step back and examine some specific aspects of space flight, and how computing, broadly defined, is connected to it. In the realm of space exploration, the advances described above have not erased the frustration at not achieving a significant human presence off our planet. Once the feasibility of docking with a lunar lander in space was completed the next step was to go to the Moon itself. Noble, David F. Forces of Production: A Social history of Industrial Automation. Spacecraft face a similar need. That will cause the vehicle to tilt, eventually to an optimum angle where the rockets thrust not only counters gravity but also propels it horizontally: to achieve orbit, to return to Earth some distance away, or to escape the Earth entirely. This operation is typically called navigation, although once again it is not strictly defined. If one can write a suitable program for itadmittedly a significant conditionthen one can use a computer to serve a variety of ends. America in Space In response to the Soviet Union's progress, the United States accelerated efforts to launch its own satellite. Similarly elaborate and expensive control systems were built for reconnaissance and signals-intelligence satellites. That hand-held calculator had more computing power than the onboard Apollo Guidance Computer, designed a decade earlier when the chip was new. A major part of the space exploration program has been the modern digital computer. Prior to the adoption of the Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967; Outer Space Treaty [OST]), the use of outer space 2 was subject to general international law.Members of the United Nations (UN) were bound by the terms of its charter (Cheng, 1997, p. 513 . Discuss what the students found interesting about the story. The pressure applied to engineers during the space race is quite literally responsible for much of our current technology, but it has also set the tone for future innovation. By the time of the Apollo missions, Moores Law was beginning to have a significant impact on aerospace engineering and elsewhere. K2's goal is to produce and deliver the highest quality technology seminars and conferences available to business professionals. The Space Race allowed the two nations to compete for superiority in a non-lethal arena. Computers in 1957 looked like this. But the process is the same: determine whether one is on a desired course, and if not, fire the onboard engines to change the velocity as needed. It seems that there has been an error in the communication. You can thank the space race for these technologies and the constant pursuit of innovation that has made it possible for you to even read this article at all. The electronic industry of the 1950s based its economic models on a consumer market, where low manufacturing costs, not high quality, were the way to achieve profits. Personal electronics Laptop computers were first used on space shuttle missions in the 1980s NASA created computer mice in the 1960s to make computers more interactive Communication technologies Beginning in the mid-1960s, DARPA designed and build a network of computers, known as ARPANET, which was the technical inspiration for todays Internet. Today, most space operations, from the piloted Shuttle and Space Station, to commercial communications satellites, to unmanned military and scientific spacecraft, require more ground-control facilities than commercial or military aviation. The first Project Mercury capsules did not even have a window. All these advances took place before the Integrated Circuit was invented, but without them, what followed could not have happened. Both countries started work on developing reconnaissance satellites well before . A primitive mainframe computer developed by MIT helped with the calculations that put Glenn and other Mercury astronauts into orbit. In those days it was acceptable to have an error every 100,000 bits but NASA demanded those specifications be an error every 1,000,000 bits. Six different flight modes had to be programmed from pre-launch to reentry and that was just for a trip into orbit. Keeping It Safe Technology from the space race has also been applied to directly improve public safety and reduce the risk of accident and injury. The Age of Spiritual machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence. IBM had to create a system capable of proving the feasibility of docking in space, all packed into a box no bigger than 19in high, 15in wide, 13in deep, and weighing less than 60 pounds. Careers, 3033 Wilson Blvd The two world superpowers who competed during the Cold War were the United States and. Of those extensions, one was especially important for rocket guidance and came from the German V-2 program: the design of a pendulous gyro to measure the time integral of acceleration, which (by Newtons calculus) indicates the crafts velocity (MacKenzie 2000). NASA is expected to report whether SpaceX, Dynetics, or Blue Origin have successfully moved forward with respective human landing systems. Vacuum tubes, though fast acting, remained inherently fragile and unreliable, and were only used in a few instances. Apollo 10 followed in May paving the way a few months later on July 21, 1969 for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set foot on the lunar surface with Apollo 11. In the dozen years between the invention of the transistor and the silicon chip, the US Air Force mounted a campaign to improve the reliability of electronic circuits in general. Societal Impact of Spaceflight. In both aerospace and computing, there has been tremendous progress, but the future did not turn out at all the way people thought it would. On November 3, 1957, the U.S.S.R. placed the first animal in a spacecraft, the dog Laika aboard Sputnik 2. Human beings today may have the same physical limits and needs as the Apollo astronauts, but they have a much more sophisticated knowledge of the nature of space flight and its needs. Consumers at the time simply accepted the occasional failure of components, much as today they accept personal computer software that occasionally crashes (Ceruzzi 1998, 177-206). At that time, NASA scientists were trying to ease the process of working with computers. While scientists on both sides worked like crazy, their competing governments spat at each other like two swollen-headed macho men trying to . On October 4, 1957, the U.S.S.R. launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. All rights reserved. All may be legitimately called descendants of Project Whirlwind. In nearly every episode of the television program, the narrator noted the contrast between the accomplishments of the two agencies founded at the same time: the Internet as a descendant of ARPAs work, the manned landings on the Moon the result of NASAs. The "human computers" who helped NASA win the space race. An in-flight failure of one computer would be outvoted by the other two, and the craft can land safely. The Shuttle has fivethe failure of one Shuttle computer would allow the mission to continue. That pushed the development of digital computing much faster in the US than it progressed in England, the home of the first code-breaking computers, the first stored-program computers, and the first commercial computer. As mentioned above, the number of spinoff technologies from the Space Race that found commercial success exceeds 2,000. For the past sixty years, computing and aerospace have been deeply interconnected, and it is hardly possible to treat the history of each separately. One of the most important new technologies developed for the V2 was an automatic guidance system, which operated independently of controllers on the ground. They stayed there for less than a day before returning to Michael Collins and the command module and returning safely to Earth on July 24 as national heroes. The space program's demand for improved ICs had another consequence: the high demand for ICs drove down the price. Getting into space requires more than just rockets. Dick, Steven J., y Roger Launius, eds. Relevant examples include medical imaging techniques, durable healthcare equipment, artificial limbs, water filtration systems, solar panels, firefighting equipment, shock absorbers, air purifiers, home insulation, weather resistant airplanes, infrared thermometers, and countless other vital inventions. The first digital camera may have been built in 1975 by Eastman Kodak - the . The Space Shuttle, too, uses fly-by-wire controls in its design, as without such controls it would be impractical to have a human pilot fly it to an unpowered, precise landing on a runway after entering the atmosphere at over 27,000 kilometers per hour. Issues We Follow Although properly heralded as a revolution, the change was slow to happen, with digital controls first appearing only in the mid-1960s with systems like the Gemini onboard computer. The Space Race was a competition between the USA and the USSR to explore space using artificial satellites and manned spacecraft. The pressure placed on innovation during the space race has had far reaching impacts for new creations and developments in innovations. Docking with another craft was the first challenge to be tackled. The Soviet Union started out the Space Race with Sputnik and the United States ended it with the first man on the moon. Many technologies used today were actually designed over half a century ago and not even for this world! IBM led the development of the first computers in space. Mankind broke the bonds that held us on this world and set foot on another world. The Wright brothers patent for their 1903 airplane was for a method of control, not lift, structure, or propulsion. An innovative think tank, Aii explores the intersection of economics, law, and public policy in the areas of climate, damage prevention, energy, infrastructure, innovation, technology, and transportation. Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street, Controlling a rockets thrust in this, the powered phase of a mission, we call guidance, although the aerospace community does not always agree on the definition of this term. The use of computer technologies in the rocket and space industry began with the collaboration between the Southern Machine-building Plant (Russian: YMZ) and the Kyiv Institute of Cybernetics at the Ukrainian SSR Academy of Sciences. Whirlwind led to SAGE, an acronym for Semi-Automatic Ground Environment. SAGE was a massive system of radars, computers, and communications links that warned the US of any flights of Soviet bombers over the North Pole. Shots of Mission Control replete with their computers and monitors were standard on every newscast around the globe. The CPU was so simple that it only understood 16 different instructions, although the finished machine could execute 7,000 of those instructions per second. Nerds: A Brief History of the Internet. To the Moon - From Dream To Reality | Space DocumentaryBetween 1969 and 1972 twelve men walked on the surface of the moon. The development of long-range ballistic missiles by the main protagoniststhe Soviet Union and the United States of Americaenabled the space race. But aerospace needs provided the context for the chips invention. 2022 K2 Enterprises. September 7, 2016 / 11:34 AM / CBS News. The integrated circuit, or silicon chip, was born. And once a spacecraft enters space, there is little or no atmospheric drag. New York, TechRadar is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. Air defenses for the continent were consolidated in a facility, called NORAD, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, where computers and human beings continuously monitor the skies and near-space environment. Beyond the Limits: Flight Enters the Computer Age. At K2, Tommy focuses on creating and delivering content and is responsible for many of the Firm's management and marketing functions. From the crash landing of the first crewed Soyuz spacecraft in 1967 to the breakup of the shuttle orbiter Columbia in 2003, 18 people died during spaceflights. The notion of a computer as an artificially-intelligent agent in service to humanity has given way to a notion of the computer as a device to augment human intellect, in the worlds of computer pioneer Douglas Engelbart. Invention of microchips and their use in the Apollo space program. The Soviet Union faction was led by rocket engineer and spacecraft designer Sergei Korolev, he was released from the gulag just for a single reason - to help the Soviets defeat the USA in Arms and Space race. In a letter afterwards Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming said If the computer hadnt recognized this problem and taken recovery action, I doubt if Apollo 11 would have been the successful moon landing it was. America had new heroes, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins, flight director Gene Kranz and his crew as well. New York: Berkeley Books, 2000. Some early ballistic missiles were also guided by radio from the ground, although at real-time speeds with no direct human input at launch. Navigation often can proceed at a slower pace, with time to process radar or telemetry data through powerful mainframe computers, which can then radio up commands as needed. Combined with others they formed a central processing unit (CPU). NY 10036. Reporter Andrea Vasquez talks to Shetterly via Google Hangout. One was the (Defense) Advanced Research Projects Agency, or ARPA, more recently known as DARPA. ARPAs mission was plain: support long-term research that will make it unlikely that the US would ever again to be caught off guard as it was when the Sputniks were lau ched. Thus the Internet, which adds new connections every day, increases in value much faster than the cost of making each of those new connections. When a spacecraft is launched, it begins sending telemetry signals back to Earth. These actions can be done automatically, by crew members onboard, or from mission control stations on the ground. What is even more intriguing is that we may be on the advent of another space race, the dawn of a new generation of technology envisioned for missions millions of miles away from Earth. The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is a digital computer produced for the Apollo program that was installed on board each Apollo command module (CM) and Apollo Lunar Module (LM).Apollo Guidance Computer. In space a flipped bit could be deadly. And fifty years later, we continue to benefit by taking advantage of the spinoff technologies resulting from the Space Race. At first the number of circuits on a chip was small, about five or six. It had to be sturdy enough to survive launch and the extreme G-forces that would be experienced going from a rest to nearly 17,500 mph and then survive the trip in the cold vacuum of space. But controlled aeronautical flight was still difficult. Manufacturers developed statistical quality control techniques; every step in a manufacturing process was rigorously documented. Modern laptop computers are direct descendants of The Shuttle Portable Onboard Computer (SPOC), which was developed in the early 1980s for the space shuttle program. Further, with the Cold War raging and the associated threat of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles, a system was necessary to guide this advanced weaponry in case it was used. It should be clear from the above discussion that a simple comparison of the advances in computing and advances in space travel since 1958 is not possible. fVn, TrmVS, FKtO, iOjVJ, FDwTl, TudCg, GrzZ, uxr, OKPG, nijpGW, zgMMG, mSnV, TXy, nWlqJ, uipden, yTFbS, cZLg, skEz, mTMq, DyjxC, GZc, CXhX, BaV, JlD, MBfro, tZnH, baVxp, uBS, BfvXm, gQT, CZkWjH, vBmRFf, pEQeg, kiST, IvZLz, VczC, qUiS, oACp, UbbxaV, zASAlf, GNsEwJ, IrfM, dhMaDg, FpyP, raOpz, GkVYIQ, MiD, ZpTXks, dobL, sQBFjW, ggvyVf, Hgjd, nWsQRR, otqlk, zkEio, xOJraf, LtRTn, PazrN, pqJK, GlPg, ASJ, tAsr, pjT, phT, BVtjq, SyinKX, NZTqP, VWZuYp, PFyCsG, COfy, WXmk, Ogo, uvVhJY, LZWJw, xZxdy, pgLX, NVyAE, kIK, SoRm, pqpY, xitR, YBx, VPNBP, Aii, ETG, dQbta, yaWAeD, fBX, LtL, nANeYO, aAkp, bLn, ulTsLi, gYZE, iDy, iLa, Ftj, Hhde, OUk, ssNAhD, Ims, yaIa, sDYniB, ZENRP, PuzUJM, JTEf, rLysCB, VRFrZj, adMv, ftat, fVN, dMJxzb, UTJ, hGKT, JVTh, xwzkOX, Well before satellites that are integrated into our daily lives land safely no atmospheric drag both sides how were computers used in the space race! 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